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Most of the data on this page was originally published in an article I wrote for Den Danske Pioneer.
A Runic PrimerAll of us probably have heard of Runes and Runestones, but few know much, if anything, about what runes really are. In simplest terms, runes are the letters of the runic alphabet. Also known as the Futhark, a name derived from its first seven characters, this alphabet was in use throughout Scandinavia, the British Isles and other Norse influenced areas for about a millennium. There is evidence to indicate that the Futhark was developed in Denmark. Some scholars believe that it was modeled on the Greek and Latin alphabets of the day. Since the letters had to be carved into wood or chiseled into stone, it should come as no surprise that runes are mostly simple stick figures. Laymen probably knew little of the meaning of these characters and their purpose. This may account for why runes held a mystical quality. By the same token, there was no formal teaching of runic, nor any strict grammatical usage - no stylebooks. Thus, many variants, some unique to a single inscription, others to a district or region, appeared. Over the centuries that the Futhark was in use, it underwent many changes and three principal incarnations evolved. The Futhark's earliest form appeared in the 3rd century AD. There were 24 characters grouped into three octets. They were used principally on jewelry, weapons, and tools in Denmark. Names were bestowed upon the objects and ownership proclaimed. In Norway and Sweden the stick figure letters appear on memorial stones beginning circa 300 AD. During the sixth and early seventh centuries the Futhark was trimmed to a leaner 16-letter alphabet often called the younger runic alphabet. To accomplish this, letters assumed two or more sounds, a practice that made reading an inscription more cumbersome. The character for the I sound also could mean the sounds for E or J. K might also mean G. B might represent P. With such open interpretation, the same group of symbols could be read two or more ways. The younger runic alphabet was widely used for epitaphs, but it appeared in some of the former roles as well. It was gradually eclipsed by the medieval runic alphabet circa 950 AD. This final variant was strongly influenced by the Roman alphabet as Christianity made its way into Scandinavia. The 16 symbols expanded to 25 in most areas and as high as 33 in Britain. But even as this newest version became more widely accepted, the use of runic inscriptions began to decline in the mid 11th century. Where runic persisted, inscriptions show a wealth of variant characters. For example, a 13th century inscription by King Valdemar of Denmark consists of only 6 words, yet it includes 4 new adaptations. Medieval runes were carved on church walls and various ecclesiastical objects. They also took on a whole new magical quality. But even magic could not prolong the inevitable, the runic alphabet faded into obscurity circa 1450. The last major use of runes was on a perpetual calendar that emerged in the late Middle Ages. This runstav evolved to track holy dates. It was simply a flat piece of wood about a meter long and 5 centimeters wide. The 16 characters of the younger runic alphabet were joined by 3 new designs to track the 19-year lunar cycle. It remained in intermittent use thru the 17th century.
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