Spanish Architecture
The
oldest architectural works in Spain date back to the megalithic culture,
approximately 3,000 years before Christ during a period generally referred to as the native
Iberian Civilization. This very early works are, unfortunately, the least known
and researched in Spain where there is a preponderance to highlight ruins from
the times when Spain was part of the Roman Empire – such as the famous Aqueduct
in Segovia (pictured to the left), and the Roman Amphitheater in Mérida; or the beautiful Islamic
structures built during the occupation of the Iberian Peninsula by Arabs and
Jews, such as the Mesquite of Córdoba.
Spanish architecture is a reflection of its history and cultural diversity and
offers some of the richest and most varied architectural treasures in the world.
Given the many wars and social unrest that Spain has endured throughout its
history it is surprising to find works, such as those cited above, in an
excellent state of preservation.
While Europe evolved towards a Gothic style of architecture after the fall of
the Roman Empire, the Iberian Peninsula went through a long period of
development when the prevalent style was defined by Islamic and Hebraic
influences. These influences can be found mostly in southern Spain and
Portugal, the areas where the North African hierarchy settled down.
Interestingly their original monuments and buildings also went through
significant transformations during their 800 year occupation of Iberia, ranging
from clearly African motifs in the earliest structures; to a blend of Arabic,
Hebrew and Hispanic influences in those built before their expulsion in the late
XV century. Those latter structures are markedly different from what was being
built in northern Africa at the time both from technical and stylistic
perspectives.
The absence of Islamic structures and monuments in northern Spain and Portugal
is a reflection of the resistance presented by Christian forces in this part of
the Iberian Peninsula.
Some of the best Goth and Visigoth treasures were built in the XII and XIII
centuries and include several structures in Santiago de Compostela.
Buildings erected during the Islamic occupation of the Iberian Peninsula, such
as the Alhambra (pictured left), are not
only a reflection of different cultures and people, but of different religions. Works built during this era are characterized by the freedom of religion and
expression that prevailed in the peninsula in territories occupied by Islamic
forces and those occupied by Christians, until the Spanish
Inquisition and the Catholic Monarchs put an end to religious tolerance in all
forms and contexts in the XV century.
The fusion of architectural styles in Spain is normally referred to as Mozárabe
or Mudéjar (Spanish Muslim). The word Mozárabe is a derivative of the Arabic
expression mustab’rab which literally means “that wants to resemble Arab”; and
was also applied to the Iberian Christians that chose to live in Islamic
controlled areas during the invasion. This fusion of styles is most evident in
the architecture constructed between the XI and XV centuries.
The Gothic style was introduced in Spain in the XII century when several
monasteries of the Order of Císter were built in Navarre and Aragón. Most of
these rural monasteries reflect the austerity of the Order and lack
ornamentation. Most are two story structures, often in a T shape, with chapels
and social areas downstairs, and the cells (dormitories) upstairs. Some of the
best known and best preserved are those in Poblet, La Espina, Fitero, La Oliva,
Santa Creu, and La Moreruela. This style eventually evolved into one that was
greatly influenced by French architecture and is often referred to as “the way
to Santiago”. The cathedrals of Burgos, Leon and Toledo were built during this
period.
The Renaissance era in Spain was characterized by the expulsion of the Islamic
occupiers, the Discovery of America, the unification of Spanish Kingdoms, and
religious intolerance. The Italian renaissance style was adopted, but with a
clear tendency for more ornamental designs. This period, which encompassed the
reigns of Charles V and Philip II, is normally referred to as “Plateresco”, to
characterize the use of sculpted stone and precious metals in complicated fine
filigrees. One of the most representative structures of this period is the
University of Salamanca, one of the oldest in Europe.
The Spanish baroque style emerged during one of the most prolific and glorious
periods in Spain’s history. Two distinct styles emerged during this epoch,
the austere “Herreriano”, named after Juan de Herrera, with the Monastery of El
Escorial (pictured left) being its most representative building; and the “Churrigueresco” style
named after the Churriguera family with its excessive ornamentation and vivid
imagination. A lesser known style known as “Compostelano Baroque” emerged in
Galicia during this timeframe.
The Spanish Gothic style during the XV century is often called “Isabeline” and
is characterized by square structures, large rooms with thin supports, and
decorative motifs over doors and windows including heraldry, conches, diamond
points, etc. Some of the best known works of this period include the “lonjas”
in Palma de Majorca and Valencia, the Cathedral of Tarragona, and the
Generalitat in Barcelona.
It was, however, its Modern style of architecture that propelled Spain to the
international forefront of this art form mostly because of the works of several
Catalonian architects among who stands out the inimitable Antoni Gaudi. His
Cathedral of the Holy Family and other structures make Barcelona one of the most
creative architectural centers in the world.
Spanish School
of Painting
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With the exception of the magnificent prehistoric
paintings found in the caves of Altamira, near Santillana del Mar in northern
Spain, most of the Spanish paintings that have survived the test of time, social
unrest, and neglect date back to the Romanesque period. Paintings from
the XII and XIII centuries fall into two distinct modalities, murals and
paintings on boards. One of the best murals from this era is at the church of
Casillas de Berlanga, Soria;
its profane theme makes it extremely interesting and unusual for that epoch. The
paintings on the walls and vault of the hermitage of Santa Cruz de
Maderuelo,
Segovia, are equally exceptional and include a varied iconography of Christ,
angels and other biblical scenes. Paintings on board include items such as a
frontal from Guils,
Catalonia (Prado). Most examples of old Spanish paintings, however, are from
the early Gothic period. Most of these early works were made on wood panels,
although a few church altars were made of metal, enamel, or marble; such as the
sumptuous altar at the cathedral of Tarragona.
Miniatures were very popular in Spain during the XIII
and XIV centuries. Works from the XIV and XV centuries offer a diversified
representation of Spanish art that indicates an increase in artistic activity on
the Iberian Peninsula in that era. The XIV century also produced the popular
triptychs (small paintings on wood and canvas); and painted furniture.
The Spanish Gothic period encompasses the XV and XVI centuries, when four
distinct styles emerged: the Italian Gothic, International Gothic, Linear, and
Hispano-Flemish. The dominant school of painting in Spain during this period
was the Catalan school. One of the most important figures of this era is
Pedro Berruguete
who after a long stay in Italy was able to introduce new Renaissance
developments in Spain.
The Spanish Renaissance began during the XVI
century, when many Spanish artists visited Italy, attracted by the fame of the
Italian School; returning to their native land to produce their version of the
lessons learned in that country. It is important to note that although many
Spanish painters from this period imitated the techniques and colors of the
Italian masters, they rejected the mythological themes and nude portraits in
favor of traditional religious themes and portraits. Most of their work was
commissioned by the Monarchy and the Catholic Church who became the main
repositories of works from this era.
The XVII century was Spain’s Golden Age (El
Siglo de Oro)
historically, militarily, economically, socially, and artistically. The most
active schools of painting in Spain during this magnificent period were those in
Seville, Madrid and Toledo. Most Spanish artists during this period remained
faithful to the themes of the preceding century, but expressed it in
naturalistic realism that often involved royal subjects. Italian influence
in all art forms (music, dance, painting, sculpting) were largely rejected in
favor of a nationalist Mannerist style characterized by its austere and
noble themes, and the use of chiaroscuro to create a sense of drama and
realism. Most Spanish artists became more concerned with their choice of
colors and tonal values. Light was used not
only to lend brightness to external forms but to achieve transcendental
functions. Spatial values became more subtle, tonal gradation gained
importance, and the conventional mode of observation became so penetrating that
no other age or style has been able to equal it in truthfulness. The elegance
and psychological profundity of the works made during this period, combined with
the wonderful harmony of tones and colors, made Spanish artists the leaders of
European painting during this century.
Tenebrism,
a term used to describe the predominant dark tonality in a painting, is normally
applied to the followers of Caravaggio. It became popular in Spain in the late
XVI century and early XVII century. The first Spanish painter to abandon
Mannerism in favor of the new realistic style was Francisco
Ribalta
(1555-1628). His style is marked by virile naturalism and bold strokes that
contrast with the polished smoothness of the previous century. One of his best
known paintings is Christ Embracing St. Bernard (Prado Museum), and The Last
Supper (Valencia Museum). The greatest Spanish master of this new style was
José de
Ribera
(1591-1652). Ribera’s
refined execution and realistic modeling are normally presented in dramatic
themes using brown and red as dominant colors, with beautiful flesh tints, and a
use of light that give his forms a sense of violence. Some of his best works
include St. Andrew (Prado Museum), The Martyrdom (Budapest Museum), the
Crucifixion (Osuna),
and the Martyrdom of St. Bartholomew (Prado Museum, pictured left).
Ribalta’s
style evolved from an early affinity to “tenebrism”
and experimentation with silvery light, to the use of warm golden tones.
One of his best paintings is the Holy Family (Metropolitan Museum of Art, NY).
His paintings and engravings made a tremendous impact on artists in Spain and
throughout Europe, although most were made for the Spanish aristocracy and
ecclesiasts.
The Seville
school progressed rapidly from its
original Renaissance style of painting to Baroque naturalism. Masters such as
Francisco Pacheco, Juan de las
Roelas, and Francisco de Herrera made
excellent paintings and were the teachers of some of Spain’s greatest artists,
including Diego Velázquez
and Alonso Cano. Roelas’
Martyrdom of St. Andrew (Seville Museum) and
Herreras’
(St. Bonaventure, Seville Museum and Bob Jones University, SC) are works
representative of the naturalist style of member of this school.
The most important figure of the Spanish school
in the XVII century was Diego Rodriguez de Silva y Velázquez
(1599-1660), widely regarded as the greatest Spanish master, and among the best
in the world. His mastery of space, light, and color was served by his
impeccable technique. Since his apprenticeship at the studio of Francisco
Pacheco in Seville, Velázquez
exhibited a preference for figure studies and genre scenes. Some of his best
early works include Christ in the House of Mary and Martha (National Gallery,
London) and Christ at Emmaus (Metropolitan Museum, NY). Most of his early
paintings were executed in the tenebrous style. Velázquez
moved to Madrid in 1623 where he painted a portrait of King Philip IV that was
so pleasing to the monarch that he made Diego an official royal artist. From
1623 to 1629 he abandoned the tenebrous style, choosing gray backgrounds of
extreme sensitivity. Some of the best works of this period include The Topers
(Prado Museum), Forge of Vulcan (Prado Museum), and one of his masterpieces the
Crucifixion, a work of unparallel serenity and simplicity. During his
middle age Velázquez
style continued to evolve and in addition to his ever present precision of
outline and blending of tones and colors, he developed a comprehensive vision of
reality including his respect for nature and the spirit. Some of his best works
during this period include the Surrender of
Breda
(Palace of Buen Retiro,
Madrid), Philip IV and Prince
Baltasar (both at the Prado Museum). Other
excellent works during this period include Boy of
Vallecas
and Coronation of the Virgin, also at the Prado Museum.
Velázquez was
able to improve even further in his latter years with a resilience rare even
among men of genius, surpassing the works cited above with his greatest
masterpieces, Las Meninas
(the Maids of Honor), and the Spinners. The metaphysical nature of Las
Meninas
transforms its human subjects into transcendental characters immortalized by
art. The Spinners captures the essence of movement using what was then a
revolutionary technique of sketchy drawings and blurred forms. Both paintings
are characterized by superb compositional balance and an incredible sense of
reality. His unique portrayal of light was in the best Spanish tradition, but
surpassed that of any of his predecessors and contemporaries by giving it a new
form of expression. Understandably, most of his contemporaries and students
avoided the difficult path chosen by this master and preferred to follow the
lower ground of Baroque used by masters such as Rubens.
Other outstanding members of the Seville school
of painting include Francisco de
Zurbarán,
a student of painter Diaz de Villanueva. His style is characterized by his
natural asceticism and a rustic simplicity typical of his native
Extremadura.
Although faithful to his upbringing and emotions he assumed a naturalist style
that made him the purest artist of the Spanish Baroque era. In 1616, as a very
young man, he produced one of his greatest masterpieces, The Immaculate
Conception (Valdés
collection, Bilbao). Shortly thereafter he was commissioned by several
ecclesiasts to perform a series on the monastic life of St. Peter of
Nolasco
in which the artist revealed his emerging skills in the handling of ivory tones
and broad parallel folds, with gold reflections gleaming in the shadows. Most
of his works during this period were made for churches, such as The Childhood of
the Virgin (pictured left). One of his finest, the
House of Nazareth, is at the Cleveland Museum. Zurbarán
became a master of simple themes, solitary figures, saints with their eyes
raised to heaven, and beautiful still life works. His religious beliefs are
best expressed in paintings such as The Painter Before Christ Crucified (Prado
Museum) through which this artist idealizes Christ in a most realist and
dramatic manner. Some believe he used himself as a model for some of his
religious paintings.
Another extraordinary product of the Seville
school was Bartolomé
Esteban Murillo, an artist characterized by the elegance and delicacy of his
works. His sensitivity to feminine beauty and children is evident in his works;
whether religious or rural. He often used his Baroque style of painting to
capture social unrest and picaresque themes with great realism. Although most
of his works were for churches, some of his best involve everyday themes such as
Boys Eating Melon (Munich Museum), and the Beggar (Louvre
Museum). His sensitivity to human beauty and the delicacy of the lighting and
color effects in his works are the primary qualities of Murillo's art.
The Toledo
school followed a similar course, as
could be appreciated by the works of its foremost artists, El Greco, Luis Tristán,
and Pedro Orrente. Sadly, Tristan’s premature death deprived us of a
continuation of his wonderful works, which include the altarpiece in
Yepes,
and another one at Santa Clara de Toledo. Other important painters from the
Toledo school include Fray Juan Bautista
Maino,
the drawing master of Philip IV, and Fray Juan Sanchez
Cotán,
a specialist in still-life.
Among the most important members of the
Madrid school is the renowned Francisco
José de Goya y Lucientes who although he received his initial art education
at the Escuelas Pias in Zaragoza with Jose Martin Luzán, he spent most of his
life in Madrid where he became one of the greatest artists of his time. After
an unsuccessful attempt to win a prize at the
Academy of San Fernando, in Madrid, Goya went to Italy where he did very well in
an art competition in Parma. Upon his return to Madrid he worked on tapestries
that evoked popular events and life in Spain. His early frescos are
representative of the great admiration he felt for Velázquez and Rembrandt, as
well as his impetuous personality. Some of his most important and popular works
include the dramatic Third of May 1808 (Prado), through which he captured the
brutality of the Napoleonic forces in Spain. During the Peninsular War Goya
painted some of the most prominent figures of that time including Joseph
Bonaparte (Napoleon’s brother), Ferdinand VII, and the English Duke of
Wellington.
Goya
became a member of the Royal Academy of Fine Arts in 1780, and was later
appointed Court painter of King Charles III. His paintings of the royal
family; and his tapestries and cartoons, often portray the lifestyle of Spain in
that era, and were highly praised and popular. In fact, Goya revolutionized the
tapestry industry which until then had been dominated by Flemish motifs.
Several of his most beautiful and elegant portraits of friends and the nobility
date from the 1780s.
In 1797, afflicted
by depression and deafness, he began to draw and etch a series of prints called
Los Caprichos
(The Caprices), which exhibit a satirical sense of humor intended to mock the
superstitions of that era. These were followed by another two series called
Desastres
de la Guerra (Disasters of War, 1810) and
Disparates
(Absurdities, 1820) which represent a more caustic depiction of humanity. Later
portraits, such as the “Family of Charles IV”, expose the human character of the
models, lined up before the observer. These portraits also emphasize the
changes in feminine fashion and some include pets or characters on horseback. A
portrait of Juana Galarza de
Goicoechea is a sample of the artist’s talent
for miniature paintings.
The most controversial and, perhaps, some of his best works are his Black
Paintings, in which he depicts scenes of witchcraft and other bizarre
activities (such as The Colossus, pictured above). Most of them were painted in frescos on the walls of
Goya’s
country house, and were later transferred to canvas. He did these works towards
the end of his life until the political oppression that existed in Spain during
the rule of Ferdinand VII became intolerable. When the French forces were
expelled from Spain Goya was accused of being a French sympathizer, and although
he was exonerated by King Ferdinand VII he chose to go into voluntary exile in
France in 1824. During his self imposed exile in Bordeaux he took up what was
then the new and revolutionary art of lithography. His lithographs of
bullfighting scenes are considered some of the best ever made.
Alonso
Cano was born in Granada. He did most of his paintings in Madrid and Granada
between 1638 and 1652. Most of his works are religious in nature and include a
combination of paintings and sculptures. His frequently rounded forms are
softened by lively and harmonious colors, strong lighting, and excellent
composition. One of his most important altarpieces was made for the church of
Getafe,
Madrid. After that his technique became increasingly Baroque. One of his most
important paintings was Descent from Limbo (Country Museum, Los Angeles), which
includes one of the most beautiful female nudes in Spanish art. Other important
paintings include Dead Christ Supported by an Angel (Prado).
His landscaping skills and naturalism are evident in a series of Biblical
Themes, including Christ and the Woman of Samaria. In Granada he painted the
Seven Mysteries of the Virgin for the cathedral in that city and his
masterpieces, a series of Immaculate Conceptions.
Other
excellent painters from the Madrid school include Antonio Pereda
(1608-1678), the author of several religious paintings including an Immaculate
Conception (Ponce Museum, PR); and Juan Carreño de Miranda (1614-1685) who did
several works for King Charles II. Some of his most important works are the
Duke of Pastrana
(Prado), and portraits of the Queen Mother, Mariana of Austria, and King Charles
II. Mateo Cerezo,
José Antolinez,
Antonio Escalante and Claudio
Coello are also among the best painters from
this great school.
The late
XIX and XX centuries were dominated by a large number of “Modern” painters,
mostly from the Catalan school, that propelled Spain to the forefront of
the art world. This period began with wonderful impressionist painters such as
Fortuny, Sorolla, and Zuloaga, and culminated with cubist and surrealist giants
such as Picasso, Gris, Miró, and Dalí. The mastery of Catalonian painter
Mariano Fortuny i Marsal is evident in his beautiful oils and watercolors.
Works such as the Battle of Wad-Ras and Queen Maria Cristina Reviewing the
Troops introduce historical themes with uncanny realism. His avant-garde
concepts can be best appreciated in The Painter’s Children in the Japanese
Salon; and in his approach to light in watercolors such as Idyll, Landscape and
in Bullfight (Prado).
The
portraits and canvasses of Joaquín
Sorolla y Bastida offer a beautiful example of
Spanish impressionism and realism that helped mark a change in direction of
Spanish artists during their evolution to modern art. Some of his best works
include They Still Say Fish is Expensive, The Guitarists, and Children on the
Beach.
Juan
Gris
(1887-1927) was born in Madrid, Spain, but spent most of his professional life
in France. His impact on modern art was significant and helped mark a
fundamental turning point from classical to modern art. Some examples of his
work include “Violin and Guitar”, a polychrome work in which the artist
accentuated the use of vertical lines interrupted by the shapes of musical
instruments. One of his masterpieces was “Portrait of Josette”, his wife, whom
he painted with an extremely chromatic, ascetic, and refined cubist synthesis.
The great master and dominant figure of modern
painting throughout the XX century was Pablo Ruiz Picasso (1881-1973). Picasso
was born in Malaga where he grew up and received his initial art training, he
lived in La Coruña for four years, and spent many years in Barcelona where he
studied at the School of Fine Arts in La Lonja.
He took advanced classes at the Academy of San
Fernando in Madrid, where he was regarded as an artistic prodigy. Picasso spent
much of his professional life in France.
In works such as “Guernica” and “Still Life with Dead
Birds” he reminds us of the process of creation, civilization, and death. The
large dimensions and elements integrated in canvasses such as Guernica, endow
his works with a monumental character that surpass anecdotal qualities. The
complexity and creative genius of many of his paintings can be appreciated not
only in his final products but in the many preparatory sketches, photographs,
and study oils that preceded them. Guernica represents a perfectly defined
allegory to the ravages of war, and pain. Other important works include
the “Evocation – The Burial of Casagemas”, which is essentially the same work
painted in blue, a tonality he used to depict despair, misery, physical
weakness, old age, and poverty. The allegorical “La Vie” was painted in
monochrome blue. His best watershed was "Les Demoiselles d'Avignon” (pictured,
above left), one of the
best works in this genre in the 20th century. “The Guitar” is an
excellent representation of synthetic cubism. In 1923 Picasso composed “The
Pipes of Pan”, regarded as the most important painting of his “classicist”
period.
The
extraordinarily lyrical and very personal style of Catalonian artist Joan Miró
(1893-1983) can be appreciated in works such as “Snail, Woman, Flower, Star” in
which the subjects stand out against a very elaborate background of gentle
colors. In the “Dragonfly with Red-Tipped Wings in Pursuit of a Snake Spiraling
towards a Comet” the artist introduces element of pure color that resemble
people, animals and heavenly bodies against a cloudy background, with a
checkerboard effect.
Salvador
Dalí y Domenech
was born in Figueres,
Catalonia, in 1904. After reading the works of
Sigmund Freud on the erotic significance of subconscious imagery, Dali began to
depict images of dreams and everyday objects juxtaposed and in the most unusual
forms, in landscapes reminiscent of his native
Catalonia, in what appears
to be an effort to establish a link between our subconscious over reason.
His controversial art made him the most significant figure of surrealist art in
the world. Important examples of his art include “Persistence of Memory”, the
“Crucifixion”, and “The Sacrament of the Last
Supper”. Most of his paintings are characterized by a meticulous draftsmanship,
excellent detail, and brilliant colors heightened by transparent glazes which,
at times, seems to enhance the nightmarish effect of his paintings.
